Populism and democratic erosion in Latin America

In the region's political tradition, populism has been a pervasive experience that will continue to transform to appeal to those disappointed by democracy and its limitations.

March 6, 2024

Original article in Spanish published by Diálogo Político.

Populism is a widely debated concept in political theory without a definitive consensus. However, we can approach its definition by considering the phenomenon's context, typically presenting a confrontation between liberalism and democracy. In the discussion, various expressions relating to its nature are found. Some define it as an ideology, while others see it as a political and social movement. Its characterizations reflect European experiences that contrast to those in Latin America. In political theory, we can distinguish the North American school of populism, the view of Laclau and Mouffe, and the now much less prominent socioeconomic perspective. Likewise, we must remember Germani's perspective as a form of authoritarian domination in response to political exclusion.

Populism, a concept

In Mudde's argument (2004), we find the essence of the populist debate with a fluid content, where contradictions arise between an identity based on purity versus the power of the elites.

"a thin-centered ideology that considers society ultimately divided into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups 'the pure people' versus 'the corrupt elite,' and argues that politics should be an expression of the general will (volonté générale) of the people."

The categorization of populism is not limited to theoretical views, as a more pragmatic view of populism conceives it as a strategy centered on charismatic personality or folkloric leadership aimed at mobilizing the population. It is a flexible concept that can manifest across different ideological tendencies, yet common elements can be found in the roles of the people, the elites, and the general will. The common destiny is the idea of radical democracy (Laclau and Mouffe), where surpassing the search for a balance between freedom and equality allows the conflictive nature to lead to the unification of plural movements, thereby deepening radical democracy (Puerta, 2021).

Undemocratic reaction

The populist discourse presents differentiated dimensions when characterizing its opponent. The nationalist vein is a moral argument defending sovereignty (Chávez). In contrast, others have an ethnopopulist component (Bolivia), unlike the exclusionary xenophobic traits present in the European version of nationalist populism. In a scenario where elites represent foreign interests, nationalist sentiment translates into an anti-imperialist reaction in Latin America.

Moreover, the embodiment of the people's power is tasked with displacing corrupt elites and bringing social justice to correct deep inequities resulting from these elites' influence on the economy and society. Thus, we can find in the Peronist experience in Argentina and the Chavist experience in Venezuela the elements that support a model of social inclusion that progressively moved away from democratic forms and practices, claiming exclusive representation of the people to protect them from external threats.

In the current anti-democratic reaction, elements subscribe to the discursive tradition of anti-imperialism; however, other causes are present, including the aspiration for social mobilization against the interests of the oligarchies, overcoming social inequities, and strengthening the popular will. Regardless of the inspiration, the context departs from the democratic cause, linking its practices to improving the relationship between the people and the embodiment of power. The sacrifice of democratic forms is justified in efforts to close a social gap at the cost of renouncing democratic freedoms.

Populist leaders

The populist experience in Latin America is broad and diverse.

In the region, we can identify a first stage characterized by the economic transition from a rural to an industrial base. The import substitution policy contradicts the interests of the political elites of the landowning oligarchy ( Gratius ), as in Argentina and Brazil.

In the second stage, the advent of neoliberalism brought with it a renewed political class (Peru and Argentina are emblematic cases). This model adopted the premises of the Washington Consensus to correct economic distortions, promising to reduce poverty. The so-called shock therapies were applied, which, far from closing gaps, deepened the difficulties of the most vulnerable and underserved sectors.

In the third stage, we find the return of the populist left hand in hand with Chavismo in Venezuela. This began a time of democratically elected governments with a clear anti-imperialist tendency and radical left affiliation (Bolivia and Venezuela in principle), whose central argument is rejecting neoliberal reform policies and rescuing the people as political actors.

Authoritarian populism

The Pink Tide exposed the populist practice in its authoritarian variant in several cases, the most emblematic of which were Hugo Chávez and Daniel Ortega. Meanwhile, in the past, Alberto Fujimori, Nayib Bukele, and Javier Milei now represent the authoritarian right-wing version of the Latin American populist trend. The malleability of populism shows its ability to adapt, regardless of whether it is a right-wing or left-wing government. The war in Ukraine has summoned populists, rallying them not around Zelensky but in reverence for Putin.

Unlike the era of economic prosperity that accompanied Chavismo in its expansion wave throughout the region, today, these expressions that became closed authoritarianism (Venezuela and Nicaragua) face deep financial crises. However, their charm is such that they manage to prevail in volatile contexts, such as El Salvador or Argentina, either due to the need to achieve security at any price or the bankruptcy left-wing populism leaves in its wake.

Populism survives in both democratic and authoritarian environments. The causes that invite its appearance range from the weakness of party systems to the recurrence of economic crises that deepen the social gap.

The sentiment that fuels populism can be vindictive or retaliatory. Democracy is seen practically as long as it allows the rise to power, but there is no loyalty to its institutions or trust in its principles. In the Latin American political tradition, populism has been an omnipresent experience that will continue to transform and attract those disappointed by democracy and its shortcomings.